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PREHISTORIC ANTS Prehistoric Formicidae of the Late Jurassic and Mid-Cretaceous Periods VIDEOS Social Organization & Complex Formicidae Colony Behavior Videos Community cooperation - worker using its own body as a bridge for other workers. The complex social behaviors and self-sacrifice of ants within their community. Hobby Videos *** SCIENCE Myrmecology: The Study of Formicidae Colony Castes: Divisions of Labor Environmental Contributions of Formicidae *** HOBBIES ANT CONTROL
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Ant Taxonomic Hierarchy behaviors Taxonomy is the science of species classification. It is the scientific classification of organisms into specially named groups based either on shared characteristics or on evolutionary relationships as inferred from the fossil record or established by genetic analysis. Additionally, Taxonomy provides a framework that enables us to undertake studies regarding the relationships between living things (phylogenic studies), so that we are better able to understand evolutionary processes, assess bio diversity and more efficiently manage it. This combination of taxonomic and phylogenic studies is called systematics. (American Heritage Science Dictionary, 2005; Australian Museum Online, 2007). hymenoptera The following article lists the taxonomic hierarchy of ants (formicidae) and describes the characteristics of the phylum, order and family to which they belong. Taxonomy of Formicidae behaviors Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Arthropoda, Subphylum: Hexapoda, Class: Insecta, Subclass: Pterygota, Infraclass: Neoptera, Order: Hymenoptera, Suborder: Apocrita, Infraorder: Aculeata, Superfamily: Vespoidea, Family: Formicidae (ITIS, 2006). behaviors Colony Community Life ... Colony Caste Divisions - worker queen male .. Stages of Development - egg larvae pupae Ants belong to the phylum Arthropoda which is perhaps the largest and most diverse phylum of the animal kingdom. Over one million animal species, 75% of all the known fossils and living organisms, are categorized within this phylum. Additionally, when one takes into account the consensus among scientists that many arthropod species still remain undocumented or undiscovered - the total specie numbers within this phylum have been estimated to be significantly higher, numbering into the tens of millions. behaviors Some examples of arthropods include sea crustaceans - such as lobsters, shrimp, crayfish, barnacles and extinct marine trilobites, (circa 544-250 million years ago), airborne insects such as bees and wasps, and their terrestrial cousins - ants, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, symphylans (small garden centipedes), and pauropodans (very small organism, sister category of millipede). taxonomy Organisms classified under Arthropoda are characterized by their segmented bodies covered with jointed exoskeletons. Exoskeletons are rigid cuticles made largely of chitin and proteins which, may or may not - depending upon the species - be further hardened with calcium carbonate (ie. lobsters). These armored encasements, whether firm or pliable, are shed (molted) by the animal at intervals in order to accommodate body growth and/or biomorphic change. After these transformations, new exoskeletons are secreted by the animal and, over time, the entire process repeats itself. behaviors Other characterizations of phylum Arthropoda include: body segments that exhibit bilaterally paired, jointed appendages, complex nervous systems with dorsal brains, connective nerves passing around the anterior portion of the digestive tract and a ventral nerve cord with a ganglion in each each body segment. They exhibit open circulatory systems with a tubular, dorsal blood vessel that directs blood flow forward towards the brain, reduced body cavities, complete digestive systems with a tubular alimentary canal, mouth and anus, and striated muscle fibers in their skeletal system. Most reproduce sexually, exhibit bilateral body symmetry and breathe either by gills, tracheae or spiracle. hymenoptera Within the phylum of Arthropoda, four subphyla comprise fifteen different classes of animal life (ITIS, 2004) and group hundreds of thousands of geographically diverse, terrestrial, air borne and aquatic species. taxonomy The four subphyla of Arthropoda and their respective classes are: behaviors 1. Subphylum "Chelicerata": comprised of three classes - Arachnida (spiders), Merostomata (horseshoe crabs), and Pycnogonida (sea spiders). 2. Subphylum "Crustacea": comprised of six classes - Branchiopoda (mainly freshwater fairy shrimps & water fleas), Cephalocardia (small crustaceans), Malacostracea (isopods, amphipods - sand fleas, krill, crabs, shrimp, lobsters), Maxillopoda (copepods/reefpods, barnacles), Ostracoda (minute - seed or mussel shrimp) and Remipedia (blind crustaceans found in deep within caves connected to salt-water - new class, rare). behaviors 3. Subphylum "Hexapoda"*: comprised of two classes - Entognatha (very small, wingless springtails, allies & two-pronged bristletails) and the class Insecta* [jumping bristletails and silverfish, modern wing-folding insects - infraclass Neoptera*, and ancient winged insects]. taxonomy *The family Formicidae, under which "ants" are classified, is found by following the subphylum Hexapoda downward through its sub classifications of : class Insecta, infraclass Neoptera (modern winged-folding insects), order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, wasps), suborder Apocrita (ants, bees, hymenopterans, true wasps), infraorder Aculeata, and superfamily Vespoidea (vespoid wasps), respectively. Taxonomy Since ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors, they exhibit very similar physical characteristics as their predecessors are thus classified under the order hymenoptera, the same order under which the various families of bees, wasps and sawflies are categorized. Literally meaning "membranous wings", the order of Hymenoptera is one of the largest groupings within the class of Insecta. Worldwide it is the third largest order of insects and contains six major families: Apidae (honey and bumble bees), Braconidae (parasitic wasps), Cynipidae (gall wasps), Scoliidae (scoliid wasps), Vespidae (hornets and yellow jackets) and Formicidae (ants). Learn Arthropoda behaviors Most species within this order (except for worker ants) have two pairs of wings, where anterior and posterior wing sets are hooked together and operate in unison while in flight to form a single aerodynamic surface. All species possess mandibulate mouth parts. Most live in colonies that exhibit evolved, complex social systems with divisions of labor and are narrowly adapted to specific habitats &/or hosts, although the order, as a whole, exhibits a wide range of behavioral adaptation. Hymenoptera species are mostly predatory or parasitic, however, herbivores do exist. Taxonomylearn behaviors Benefits to Environment. hymenoptera Although many of us view Hymenopterans as pests, they are actually quite beneficial and serve necessary ecological functions within their sphere of influence. For instance, parasitic species of ants and wasps help to keep other insect populations at bay and thus provide a natural control of other insect populations. Behaviors Other Hymenopterans develop close symbiotic & obligatory relationships with other local species. Bees and ants are pollinators of plants and also aid with seed dispersal. Some plants rely on the ants living within them to keep herbivore predators away, and the burrowing activities of soil dwelling ants - along with their deposits of accumulated organic matter - not only aerate soil but facilitate the cycling of nutrients - altering soil physical, chemical and micro biological processes for the better. Conversely, many species of ants and bees rely on the nectar and fluids that plants produce and Hymenoptera predator species rely on certain plants to attract pests for their eating pleasure (i.e. citrus trees & the soil-pupating citrus pest). learn taxonomy behaviors Twenty subfamilies compose the family Formicidae (ITIS, 2006) and as of December, 2008 there have been 12,471 species recorded (Antbase, 2005). Over twice the number of recorded species are believed to exit. Ants thrive throughout the world in all geographic locations except for a few remote islands in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, Greenland, Iceland and the polar regions. Formicidae (ants) range in size from 0.75 to 52 mm (0.030 to 2.0 in) and vary in color. Most are red or black, green is rare, and some tropical species have a metallic luster (Wikipedia, 2008). arthropoda Ants are covered with an exoskeleton and exhibit much the same anatomical and physiological attributes as was listed above under the phylum Arthropoda. They have 3 main body regions, the head, thorax and abdomen (metasoma). They have two compound eyes — one on each side of their head, two long bowed antennae on top of their head, mandibular mouth parts, a thin neck, six legs attached to the region of their thorax and a characteristic slim "waist", which appears "pinched" posteriorly at the junction of their thorax and metasoma. Most ants have a metapleural gland that produces phenylacetic acid that deters the growth of fungi and bacteria and all breathe air via spiracles.
Colony Community Life Behaviors. All ants are eusocial and live in colonies that exhibit evolved, complex social systems with divisions of labor. They cooperate in caring for their young, share a common nest site with complex tunnels and chambers, and exhibit a reproductive division of labor where sterile individuals (female) work for the benefit of a few, reproductive individuals. As soon as they are able, the young begin to work and contribute to colony labor while parents are still alive. Although ants usually have set tasks within the colony, it is not uncommon for individuals to temporarily change jobs when help might be deficient in another area. For instance, a worker ant that usually retrieves food for the colony might temporarily switch jobs to assist other workers repair a damaged nest. Ants use pheromones to communicate with one another. They are specialized chemicals that are secreted by the ant which assist them to recognize colony members, mark trails to food and water sources, determine the caste of another individual and signal for emergency measures (attack, defense and aid). Tactile communication is mainly used when a nest mate requests liquid food from a forager to be regurgitated on demand. These requests take place between adults and the process of regurgitating food on demand to feed a requesting individual is called "Trophallixis".
Colony Castes: Divisions of Labor. Learn Hymenoptera Behaviors There are three major caste divisions within the colony. The reproductive queens, reproductive males and the sterile workers.
In some species, workers are predators, in other species - scavengers, and in still other species - harvesters or farmers. Taxonomy Farmers are a most interesting group. Some farmer species tend groups of aphids and "milk" them for their "honeydew", a sweet excretion from the aphid's anus that contains surplus sugar from their (the aphid's) diet. These ants protect the aphids' eggs during the winter and then move the newly hatched aphids to new host plants, so they can feed and produce "honeydew" as an ongoing food supply for the colony (ant) . It is important to note here that the only food source adult ants consume is liquid, which is usually retrieved from either plant fluids, prey or other farmed insect populations. In the colony, only fig. 1 credit to: askabiologist.asu.edu the larva consume bits of solid food. Taxonomy Another example of farming is the cultivation of a special type of fungus by leaf-cutter ants. They plant and cultivate fungus crops in order to tap the sweet juices of the fungus for sustenance. Furthermore, to keep their gardens pest-free, workers also cultivate actinobacteria on their bodies to inhibit any pathogens that might damage or annihilate the crop (another example of farming). taxonomy behaviors Other workers in the colony perform minor tasks such as grooming, tending the eggs, caring for the newly hatched broods, and caring for the queen. Still others concern themselves with the more major tasks of nest defense, carrying the dead outside, cutting food items into smaller pieces for the larva, and acting as food storage vessels for other adults (mentioned above). Additionally, some worker ants have the ability to lay nonviable eggs for larvae to eat. Depending upon the species, some colonies contain only one queen (monogyny) while others have several queens living together in the same nest sharing in egg production (polygyny). Death of a queen in a monogynous colony can annihilate the colony because the workers have no way of replacing her. Conversely, the death of a queen in a polygynous colony has much less of a devastating impact to the colony because other viable queens are present and it is not uncommon for these colonies to recruit and adapt another queen. The queen ant looks quite similar in appearance to the worker of the same species. Unlike the other ants, however, she is much greater in size due to the anatomical variations of her body in order to facilitate flight muscles and wings (for her nuptial flight) and larger ovaries. The role of the queen is to mate and reproduce. Mating occurs in flight, far from her original nest. After mating the queen establishes a suitable nesting site where she digs a tunnel and then seals herself into small chamber, never to emerge again. There, she lays her eggs. During this time she looses her wings and may subsist by eating some of her own eggs. In several weeks her eggs hatch and viable workers begin to begin to take care of her, the new larvae and forage for food. Thus, a new colony is born. As the colony grows, queens control the type of offspring they produce. By choosing whether or not to fertilize her eggs by using stored sperm from her "nuptial flight", she can regulate they kind of offspring will have. If she chooses to fertilize, her offspring will be sterile female workers, or if well-nourished, winged, fertile females (potential queens). If she chooses not to fertilize, she will produce only winged males. Generally, the queen enjoys a much longer life span than her workers. The documented life span for a queen is also highly variable and dependent upon location, climate and species of the individual. Life spans range from as short as 3 months, to 14 years, and even as long as 29 years, in captivity. Male ants are small and emerge from unfertilized eggs. They have well developed wings and flight muscles and very large, compound eyes. Their sole purpose is to mate with queens from other nests. Except for a few species, they do no other work. Mating takes place in the air during the "nuptial flight" and once the male mates, he dies. The life span for males is about eight weeks long. Ants undergo a process of complete metamorphosis. The four distinct, sequential and very different anatominical and physiological stages of development are: egg, larvae, pupa and adult. Small, pearly white eggs are produced by the queen in her chamber. If she fertilizes the egg with sperm stored from her "nuptial flight", her offspring will become female. Conversely, if her egg remains unfertilized her offspring will become male. Once produced caretaker worker ants carry the eggs to a another chamber where they cared for. Workers arrange them in groups and then clean and rotate them frequently to fig.2 credit to: ant-photos.com keep them from getting moldy. Humidity and temperature within the chamber are also monitored by the caretakers and the regulation of such environmental factors are accomplished by moving the eggs to other, better suited chambers. In some environments, this is a frequent task. Two to six weeks later, depending upon the species and temperature of the incubating chamber, the eggs hatch and become larvae. Ant Larvae are small, white and grub-like. They are largely immobile, helpless and would perish if not attended to. Caretaker workers carefully monitor the temperature and humidity within the brood chamber and move them to other chambers with better environmental conditions as necessary. During this stage of development, the larvae are totally dependent upon their caretakers for food. They are fed either by Trophallixis, the regurgitation of liquid food stored in the stomach (crop) of an adult, or given solid food items brought back to the nest by foraging workers. On occasion caretaker worker ants, which are female, lay non-viable eggs for the larvae to eat. This is the only time during the life of the ant that it consumes solid food. Adults subsist entirely on liquid nourishment, either by direct consumption (i.e. plant nectars) or socially, by Trophallixis. Individual developmental differentiation within the colony is determined by the degree of nutrition larvae receive. For instance, females with higher nutritional intake will become queens instead of workers. Additionally, some sources document the same holds true for the various castes of workers. After a series of molts (approximately three weeks) the larvae enter the pupal stage. Pupal formation is hormone-dependent. During this stage the larval anatomy of the ant is broken down and the adult structures are formed. Pupae are incased in a hard protective coating and, as seen from the outside, appear immobile for the duration of time they spend in this state. Although they look static, an array of internal metabolic activities are taking place. Thus, the use of the term "resting phase" for the pupal stage is a great misnomer. Like the larvae, pupae are protected and cared for by caretaker worker ants. They require constant temperatures to ensure proper development. Therefore, they are moved often by their caretakers to the best chamber available for this purpose. Unlike larvae, however, pupae do not eat. This stage of development lasts for a few weeks and, after shedding its hard encasement, the individual emerges as a young adult ant, ready to take its position within the complex social system of the colony. Conclusion Taxonomy, the science of species classification, facilitates cohort study of organisms because species, classified within the same Family, have similar genetics, behaviors, anatomy and physiology . Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntBase and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species. The relative ease with which ants can be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in bio diversity studies (Wikipedia, 2008).
REFERENCES & ADDITIONAL READING Agosti, D., and N. F. Johnson. Editors. 2005. Antbase. World Wide Web electronic publication. "Taxonomy and Systematics in the Australian Museum". Australian Museum Online Hadley, D., 2008. Ants: Family Formicidae. "Arthropoda". The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. "Arthropoda". The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). "Arthropods". Science Clarified. Cammeraat, E.; Risch, A. 2008. "Impact of Ants on Mineral Soil Properties at Different Spatial Scales". "Characteristics: Order Hymenoptera". The New York Times Company. "Hymenoptera". North Carolina State University, General Entomology. "Introduction to the Arthropoda". The University of California Museum of Palentology. "Phylum Arthropoda: Characteristics". The North Dakota State University (NDSU), Department of Entomology. Roof, J. 2001. "Formicidae" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed December 15, 2008 at "Taxnomy". The American Heritage Science Dictionary. "Ant". Wikipedia Encyclopedia Online.
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